Effects+of+Stress+on+the+Body

Stress is the change that causes psychological, emotional or physical strain on the human body. It can also be described as the expression of human instinct to protect itself from external forces [16]. Humans engage in economic, social and political activities that make them vulnerable to stress triggering situations. Research has proven that extreme tension and anxiety can cause depression and lead to other forms of mental instability. Apart fro m that studies have shown that stress can lead to the development of chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease and it can destroy the human immune system [1], [3] , [4] , [14] , [15].

The increased interest in studying the effects of stress on the body stems from recent survey findings that show stress levels are on the rise. According to a 2017 survey published by the [|American Psychological Association], Americans have broken a new re- toc cord for stress and anxiety. The survey report indicates that the stress levels are highest since 2007 and more than half of the over 1, 000 people interviewed recorded that they were anxious or stressed. Stress has ceased to be a normal aspect of life and scientists are proposing its inclusion in the lists of primary risk factors for some chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease [1]. Researchers also indicate that if stress management techniques are correctly implemented, there will be a reduction in chronic diseases caused by stress. Stress has been found associated with immunity, musculoskeletal system, endocrine system and the heart. It also analyzes stress coping methods deemed suitable for mitigating the effects of stress. Analysis was mostly done through review of past research.

=** How Stress Destroys Immunity **=

Scientists have discovered that chronic stress weakens human immunity leaving the body vulnerable to many diseases including cardiovascular dysfunctions, mental illnesses, diabetes and autoimmune syndromes [1]. Persistent stress is linked to macroscopic alterations in specific sections of the brain that consist of volume variations and physical modifications of neural networks. The consequences of these alterations in some areas of the brain can spread out to other parts of the body and increase the vulnerability of developing chronic diseases and psychiatric disorders. The increased susceptibility to the development of diseases is attributed to the fact that several receptors for neuropeptides and stress hormones are primarily expressed in immune cells [ 1 3]. As a result, stress induces the phase response and increases the biomarkers that are associated with damage to tissues and infections. In some cases, persistent stress cytokines in the brain can lead to neuronal death [ 1 4].

Salleh 2008 notes that never-ending stress exerts an [|immunosuppressive effect] that withholds or suppresses the body's ability to instigate an efficient, prompt immune reaction [17]. These events are attributed to the profusion of corticosteroids that are produced during chronic stress. The strains induced by stress on various body parts associated with the maintenance and production of the immune system is what triggers the weakening of immune function [1].

= Damage on the Musculoskeletal System =

Scientists have established that stress and tension damage the human musculoskeletal system [18]. Each time a person gets stressed, the muscles become tense due to the body's natural reaction towards protecting itself against external attacks [3], [4], [19]. As the pattern of muscle tension repeats itself, the body begins to experience pains sometimes even leading to migraines.

= Effect on the Endocrine System =

Persistent and unmanaged stress can adversely affect the human [|endocrine system.] The system is responsible for the regulation of reproductive process, human growth and development, mood, the performance of tissues as well as metabolism [12]. The endocrine system, therefore, can be considered as one that guides the standard body functions of a human being. When an individual is under stress, signals from the hypothalamus triggers the release of cortisol and the level of glucose produced in the liver increases to produce excess energy as a way of fighting the stressful situation. In normal circumstances, and when stress is managed, the body reabsorbs excess sugar. However, when there is persistent stress, the body may not reabsorb the excess sugar, and that exposes a person to chronic diseases such as diabetes [12], [18].

= Stress and Cardiovascular Disease =

Studies in the past have indicated that chronic stress can lead to the development of cardiovascular disease. The cardiovascular system works in a coordinated and functional way when responding to stress. However, in situations that stressors persist, the response generates adverse effects to the cardiovascular system. Some of the events identified as prevalent in the cardiovascular system during persistent stress include heart attack and stroke [1], [2], [4],[5].

Recently researchers came up with an explanation of how stress causes cardiovascular disease. The scientists have linked the functioning of the part of the brain connected to stress to the development of cardiovascular disease. According to the researchers, when a person has heightened activity in the amygdala, his or her risk of developing heart disease also increases. That is because the amygdala's primary function is to signal the bone marrows to produce excess white blood cells as a temporary measure for fighting infection [15] .Besides, the amygdala does that to prepare the body for harmful effects [15]. The overproduction of white blood cells can end up forming plaques in the arteries which can cause a heart attack or stroke [15]. Since heightened activity in the amygdala is linked to artery inflammation as a result of increased bone marrow actions, chances are high that an individual whose amygdala functions are high will experience cardiovascular events such as angina, heart attack, peripheral vascular disease, heart failure and stroke [4], [11] , [15].

= Incorporating Stress in Research and Understanding of Chronic Illnesses =

Researchers have in the past faced difficulties trying to integrate stress processes into pathophysiological research and understanding of diseases such as the cardiovascular disease [11]. However, the recent study findings that explain how stress causes heart attack and stroke indicates that scientists are on the right path towards understanding stress in relation to chronic diseases. That explains why researchers are now proposing the incorporation of stress as a primary risk factor for the development of heart disease [15]. Apart from that routine screening for anxiety should be conducted and effective stress coping methods applied to prevent the development of cardiovascular diseases and other chronic illnesses [13]. For example, stress can be related to the prevalence of chronic pain, and the same is demonstrated in the diagram below;



=** Stress Management **=

Researchers who have delved into the understanding of how stress impacts the human body recommend the adoption of natural treatment methods of preventing the development of stress caused chronic diseases [12]. The scientists who discovered how stress causes heart attack and stroke claim that their finding brings about the possibility that effective stress management techniques could help prevent cardiovascular disease and other chronic illnesses [15]. Furthermore, the natural stress management techniques are considered safer than pharmacological retreatment because the y’d not have side effects [ 3], [9].

= Stress Management Techniques =

In their study, Varvogli1 and C. Darviri1 2011, have shown that [|stress management techniques] such as diaphragmatic breathing, relaxation response, progressive muscle relaxation, emotional freedom technique and transcendental meditation can prevent the development of stress-induced chronic diseases [6].

=** Progressive Muscle Relaxation **=

Progressive muscle relaxation involves subtly moving the muscles to bring about relaxation and tension relief. Scientific studies on progressive muscle, relaxation have shown that muscles easily relax from the point of high tension compared to a lower one. Based on that, the technique allows body muscles to be tightened and released in an overstressed manner leading to the relaxation of an individual [7], [8].

= ** Emotional Freedom Technique ** =

Emotional freedom technique (EFT) reduces cortisol levels which in the end lowers the magnitude of psychological stress. Apart from that, EFT serves as an epigenetic signal by down-regulating gene expressions linked to stress [10].

= ** Diaphragmatic Breathing ** =

Slowly breathing in and out relaxes the body and increases the antioxidant levels in the body especially after engaging in exhaustive exercise[17]. Scientifically, diaphragmatic breathing induces the activities of the parasympathetic nervous system to rise. The process can be likened to a biological brake that relives the body from stress [10]. Deep slow breathing has been successfully employed in the reduction of fatigue in patients with stem cell transplantation. Besides, it has also been used in the management of acute stressful tasks as well as reduction of asthma signs and anxiety symptoms in children with asthma [7].

= ** Meditation ** =

Meditation regulates the sympathetic nervous system, increases blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing rate when a person is exposed to stress. That way, meditation acts as an antidepressant. Meditation can also [|up-regulate] essential genes and down-regulate genes linked to inflammation thereby reducing an individual's chances of developing a chronic disease. The evidence from the studies indicates that meditation can lower blood pressure and should, therefore, be recommended for patients in treating or preventing hypertension [13], [20]. Furthermore, meditation can also lower congestive heart failure, reduce stroke and lower components of pre-diabetes and metabolic syndrome [7].The power of Meditation and its impact in lowering body stress is illustrated in the figure below. From the demonstration, it is evident that meditation plays a critical role in relieving body stress.

= ** Conclusion ** =

Almost all human beings are susceptible to chronic stress because of the daily activities that they engage in. Persistent stress renders the body inactive and interferes with the functioning of various systems leading to adverse effects on vital body organs such as the heart and lungs. The heart, endocrine and musculoskeletal systems, as well as human immunity, are at risk of destruction with persistent stress. While it is essential for everyone to familiarize with the effects of stress, it is more important to embrace stress coping mechanisms that can prevent the development of chronic diseases.

Most studies conducted in the recent past provide evidence that stress causes chronic diseases and also explains how that happens. Based on that, future studies should investigate how stress coping techniques cannot only help reduce stress but also completely prevent the development of chronic diseases. That will happen if researchers and clinicians consider stress a significant risk factor of severe illnesses so that screening for it and prevention becomes part of health practice allowing researchers to measure the effectiveness of the techniques in preventing specific chronic diseases.

=** References **=

[1] A. Mariotti, "The Effects of Chronic Stress on Health: New Insights into the Molecular Mechanisms of Brain-body Communication", Future Science OA, vol. 1, no. 3, 2015. [2] J. Dimsdale, "Psychological Stress and Cardiovascular Disease", J Am Coll Cardiol, vol. 51, no. 13, pp.1237-1246, 2008. [3] A.Kumar, P. Rinwa, G. Kaur and L. Machawal, "Stress: Neurobiology, Consequences and Management", Journal of Pharmacy and Bioallied Sciences, vol. 5, no. 2, p. 91, 2013. [4] P. Black and L. Garbutt, "Stress, Inflammation and Cardiovascular Disease", Journal of Psychosomatic Research, vol. 52, no. 1, pp. 1-23, 2002. [5] J. Gradus, D. Farkas, E. Svensson, V. Ehrenstein, T. Lash, A. Milstein, N. Adler and H. Sørensen, "Associations Between Stress Disorders and Cardiovascular Disease Events in the Danish Population", BMJ Open, vol. 5, no. 12, p. e009334, 2015. [6] L. Varvogli1 and C. Darviri1, "Stress Management Techniques: Evidence-Based Procedures that Reduce Stress and Promote Health", Health Science Journal, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 74-89, 2011. [7] D. Martarelli, M. Cocchioni, S. Scuri and P. Pompei, "Diaphragmatic Breathing Reduces Exercise-Induced Oxidative Stress", Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, vol. 2011, pp.1-10, 2011. [8] Y. Li, R. Wang, J. Tang, C. Chen, L. Tan, Z. Wu, F. Yu and X. Wang, "Progressive Muscle Relaxation Improves Anxiety and Depression of Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension Patients", Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, vol. 2015, pp. 1-8, 2015. [9] S. Hofmann, A. Sawyer, A. Witt and D. Oh, "The Effect of Mindfulness-based Therapy on Anxiety and Depression: A meta-analytic review.", Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, vol. 78, no. 2, pp. 169-183, 2010. [10] D. Church, G. Yount and A. Brooks, "The Effect of Emotional Freedom Techniques on Stress Biochemistry". The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, vol. 200, no. 10, pp. 891-896, 2012. [11] A. Steptoe and M. Kivimäki, "Stress and Cardiovascular Disease: An Update on Current Knowledge", Annual Review of Public Health, vol. 34, no. 1, pp. 337-354, 2013. [12] B. Von Dawans, U. Fischbacher, C. Kirschbaum, E. Fehr and M. Heinrichs, "The Social Dimension of Stress Reactivity", Psychological Science, vol. 23, no. 6, pp. 651-660, 2012. [13] N. Schneiderman, G. Ironson and S. Siegel, "Stress and Health: Psychological, Behavioral, and Biological Determinants", Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 607-628, 2005. [14] H. Yaribeygi, Y. Panahi, H. Sahraei, T. Johnston and A. Sahebkar, "The Impact of Stress on Body Function: A Review", EXCLI Journal, vol. 16, pp. 1057-1072, 2017. [15] A. Tawakol, A. Ishai, R. Takx, A. Figueroa, A. Ali, Y. Kaiser, Q. Truong, C. Solomon, C. alcagno, V. Mani, C. Tang, W. Mulder, J. Murrough, U. Hoffmann, M. Nahrendorf, L. Shin, Z. Fayad and R. Pitman, "Relation between Resting Amygdalar Activity and Cardiovascular Events: A Longitudinal and Cohort Study", The Lancet, vol. 389, no.10071, pp. 834-845, 2017. [16] M. Jackson, "The Stress of Life: A Modern Complaint?” The Lancet, vol. 383, no. 9914, pp. 300-301, 2014. [17] M. Salleh, "Life Event, Stress and Illness", Malaysia Journal of Medical Science, vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 9-18, 2008.  [18] B. McEwen and R. Sapolsky, "Stress and Your Health", The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, vol. 91, no. 2, pp. 0-0, 2006.  [19] K. Poornima, "Study of The Effect of Stress on Skeletal Muscle Function in Geriatrics", Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research, 2014.  [20] B. Vandana, G. Suseeladevi, H. Kumar, L. Saraswathy and K. Sunadaram, "Meditation Induces a Positive Response during Stress Events in Young Indian Adults", International Journal of Yoga, vol. 4, no. 2, p. 64, 2011.

=** List of Hyperlinks **=

http://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/stress/2016/coping-with-change.pdf https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3341916/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endocrine_system http://www.hsj.gr/medicine/stress-management-techniques-evidencebased-procedures-that-reduce-stress-and-promote-health.php?aid=3429 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2568977/