Rising+Sea+Levels+Effect+on+Human+Health

=** Introduction **=

toc The effects of climate change are global, complex issues of interest and rising  sea levels are no exception. Seawater’s thermal expansion and the heating of the earth[1] are causing sea levels to rise “at a rate of about one-eighth of an inch per year”[6]. Shockingly, about 100 feet of coast would wash out if sea levels increased by a mere foot[5]. According to a study conducted by PNAS, 90% or more will have coastal sea level rise passing the predicted global average[10]. And not only are sea levels currently rising, but also at an // increased // rate. According to satellite data, the global sea level in 2014 was the highest yearly average recorded[6]. Rising sea levels is not a new concern, but a continuous topic of interest. Researchers across the world have shown interest in rising sea level issues because of the possible impacts it could have. Studies range from the level at which the sea is rising to individual life forms that could be impacted. Environmental events have serious effects on many species and this topic has been heavily researched. The ecology of humans in the United States, however, is under discussed and the  health-related consequences for many living in coastal areas are vast. Water-borne diseases and water contamination, asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), mental health, and vector-borne diseases are just a few of the many health dangers. And since nearly // half // of the U.S. population live in highly populated coastal areas[6], the most important health impacts and the vulnerable individuals at risk must  be identified.

=** Health Impacts **=

[[image:sea water intrusion.jpg width="398" height="227" align="right" caption="The Process of Sea Level Rise and Fresh Groundwater Aquifer Contamination "]]
[|Water-borne diseases] are diseases in which [|pathogenic organisms] are transmitted through contaminated water sources. Most commonly, infection occurs when contaminated water sources make contact with skin or are consumed[4]. Research has found that about 20% of the world does not have safe drinking water resulting in approximately 5 million deaths per year[7]. Sea-level rise will increase water contamination and will thus decrease the clean water supply and increase waterborne disease prevalence[2]. Rising sea levels flood and contaminate fresh water aqueducts. The contaminated water “… will thus increase the risk and frequencies of populations being exposed to waterborne disease pathogens. [|This exposure could lead to serious health outcomes] including gastrointestinal illnesses, other chronic and extended illnesses and even death”[9]. [|Cryptosporidiosis] and [|Giardiasis] are examples of such diseases that are the most common US water-borne diseases[9].

The pathogenic organisms and the water-borne diseases are at a heightened risk due to the rising sea levels have been identified; however, the incidence rates of these diseases and a timeline of their occurrence are unknown. The amount of contaminated water sources as well as the amount of these sources that will carry water-borne diseases has yet to be established.

Asthma and COPD
[|Asthma] is a chronic disease causing inflammation in the airways of the lungs. This is a long-term disease with reoccurring symptoms and can be brought on by environmental triggers. The number of cases of asthma are expected to increase with the rise in sea level. Rising sea levels will increase the amount of mold[9] which is a strong trigger for asthmatic related symptoms. It is also noted that asthma is most prevalent in small children and the elderly—two vulnerable and susceptible populations and therefore the health risks are heightened.

[|Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease] (COPD) is a long-term lung disease that prevents proper airflow to the lungs. The incidence rate of COPD is expected to increase with the rise in sea level. Rising sea levels and the resulting flooding lead to the contamination of fresh, ground-water sources. Water contamination will lead to water-borne diseases which have a strong influence on COPD in terms of immune response and increased inflammation. Furthermore, COPD is most prevalent in the elderly and therefore has an increased health risk.

Diseases impacted by rising sea levels are known; however, the severity of these diseases have yet to be determined. While there are satellite predictions of sea-level rising rate and water levels, the quantity of future, expected cases has yet to be established**.** The quantifiable amount of increased mold and asthmatic patients are unknown. And because water contamination is an ongoing event and thus difficult to calculate, it is unknown how many COPD cases will result from the water-borne diseases.

Mental Health
[|Mental health] is the state of one’s “emotional, psychological, and social well-being”[11]. Mental health has a large impact on the world’s population. In the US alone, over a quarter of the population is diagnosed with a mental health disorder and rising sea levels are expected to increase the prevalence. The Solomon Islands, Oceania, is expected to see the greatest increase in mental health issues due to the rising seas. Research was conducted in order to find out the mental health impacts of rising sea levels on the locals of the Solomon Islands. Researchers traveled to six villages to gather responses to various types of questions. It was discovered that, out of all the villagers asked, 90% noticed the rising sea levels and 98.25% of those individuals believed that the rising sea level negatively impacted their behavior and thinking[3]. Many of villagers constantly worry about rising sea level’s negative impacts including: the continual increase of salinity in their drinking water, the destruction of crops, and the decrease in food sources. More so, many are worried that they have no place to go as the sea approaches their homes[3]. With all this worry, these villagers (98.25%) believe they have a mental health condition and over half noticed negative effects on their community.

The correlation between rising sea levels and mental health was conducted and it was discovered that there is an increased mental health issue due to the rising sea levels; however, the researched population was small. The generalizability of this research group to the rest of the global is undetermined and thus so is the mental health impact.

Vector-borne Diseases
Vector-borne diseases are diseases that are transmitted from a [|vector], a mosquito or a snail, to a host, a human or an animal. Worldwide, there are over 50 million cases of these diseases combined[8], some of which have a high mortality rate in humans. In regards to the rise in sea level, the vector of interest are mosquitoes. Rising sea levels and the resulting floods provide mosquitos with more breeding grounds since some larvae are tolerant to high levels of salinity. An increase in the population of disease carrying mosquitos are expected. This is then expected to increase the number of vector-borne disease cases. Diseases transmitted by the salt tolerant mosquitos include malaria, lymphatic filariasis and dengue[8]. Examples of increased sea levels and disease cases can be seen in the [|2004 Asian tsunami], [|shrimp farming in Vietnam]. On the other hand, decreases in salinity of some waters has led to [|decreased malaria in Europe].

It has been established that some vector-borne diseases stem from water containing salinity. It has also been concluded that rising sea levels have and will continue to increase salinity in fresh water sources. Many researchers have backed up these conclusions. The future quantity of breeding grounds, the expected population of mosquitoes, and the potential magnitude of vector-borne diseases are, however, unknown.

=** Discussion **=

Climate change and the concerns have been carefully examined across the world. Researchers have studied various ecologies and have considered the potential health impacts climate change may have on certain species. And although the amount of information on human ecology is behind that of other species, research on climate change impact on humans is beginning to grow. Most emphasis, however, focuses more on the effects of temperature change/ air pollution on human health rather than the rise in sea levels.

Current research concludes that rising sea levels will impact the health of humans; however, the magnitude of these issues is unknown. The select amount of studies that have been conducted on rising sea levels and human health have focused on water-borne diseases, chronic diseases (including asthma and COPD), mental health issues, and vector-borne diseases**.** These studies have found baseline information on the potential health impacts; however, they have not projected the magnitude of the health risks. More research and predictive models must first take place to develop a deeper understanding of the issue at hand. Questions such as: how much area will be covered in water after ‘x’ amount of time, how much of fresh water sources will be contaminated after ‘x’ amount of time, how often will floods occur, etc. must be established. The answers to these questions could help understand the magnitude of each health concern.

=** References **=

Bouttes N, Gregory JM, Lowe JA. 2013. The reversibility of sea level rise. J. of Clim. 26(8):2502–2513.

Center for Climate Change and Health. 2016. Sea level rise, climate change, and health[Internet]. Oakland (CA): Public Health Institute (US); [cited 2016]. Available from []

James A, David M, Peter M, Rick S. 2015. Mental health issues from rising sea level in a remote coastal region of the Solomon Islands: current and future. Sage J. 23(6): 22-25.

K Cann, D Thomas, R Salmon, A Wyn-jones, D Kay. 2013. Extreme water-related weather events and waterborne disease. Cambridge University Press. 141(4): 671-686.

Michael O.2015. Adapting to climate change; rising sea levels, limiting risks. Social Research; 82(3):673-678.

National Ocean Service. 2016. Is sea level rising? [Internet]. Silver Spring (MD): National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration U.S. Department of Commerce (US); [cited 2016]. Available from @http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/sealevel.html __. __

Paul H. 2001. Waterborne diseases. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 7: 544-555.

Ranjan R, Sinnathamby S. 2011. Possible impact of rising sea levels on vector-borne infectious diseases. BioMed Central ltd. 11(18):1186-1471.

Southeast Florida Regional Climate Change Compact (US). 2016. Health and sea level rise; impacts on south florida [Internet]. Lauderdale Lakes (FL); Florida Institute for Health Innovations (US); [cited 2017 Jun 12]. Available from [].

Svetlana J, Luke J, Riccardo R, Aslak G, John M. 2016. Coastal sea level rise with warming above 2°C; 113(47):13342-13347.

U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. 2017. What is mental health? [Internet]. Washington, D.C.: Mental Health (US); [cited 2017]. Available from []

=** Hyperlinks **=

[|Water-borne diseases]

[|pathogenic organisms]

[|This exposure could lead to serious health outcomes]

[|Cryptosporidiosis]

[|Giardiasis]

[|Asthma]

[|Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]

[|Mental health]

[|vector]

[|2004 Asian tsunami]

[|shrimp farming in Vietnam]

[|decreased malaria in Europe]