Organic+Farming+-+Practices+and+Environmental+Effects

toc Organic agriculture refers to farming without synthetic inputs like pesticides, fertilizers, plant growth regulators, nanomaterials, and [|genetically modified organisms] (GMOs) [13]. Its aim, according to the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements, is to preserve the health of soils, ecosystems, and people by managing ecological processes, protecting biodiversity, and fostering the cycling of resources [1]. It is crucial to note, however, that “organic” does not necessarily mean the farm is pesticide or chemical free; in fact, a variety of chemicals and pesticides are used in organic agriculture. However, none of these are synthetically produced, with a small number of exceptions approved by the [|National Organics Standards Board] [14].

Researchers have fervently studied organic farming practices, product yields, and environmental impacts with the hope of better understanding how "organic" fits into the agricultural world. Their results will further development not only in organic farming techniques, but in sustainable agriculture as a whole.

=A Brief Overview of Organic Farming Practices=

Organic farming, as mentioned above, strictly limits if not eliminates the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. It also attempts to utilize biological control and regularly rotate both crops and livestock [1].

** Biological Control **
The practice of managing agricultural pests using their natural enemies, biological control has been proposed as a solution not only for organic farming, but also in conventional farming as pests develop resistance to synthetic pesticides [15]. For this practice, habitat management-- in which vegetation patterns and farming practices are revised to provide key ecological resources to natural enemies or to have direct effects on pests independent of those enemies-- is crucial [16]. Microorganisms and fungi have also been used as pest deterrents as part of biological control methods [15].

** Crop and Livestock Rotation **
Producers practice crop rotation to interrupt insect life cycles, suppress soil borne plant diseases, build organic matter, fix nitrogen, and increase farm biodiversity. In crop rotation practices, farmers typically follow one crop with a plant from another family, then wait a number of years before replanting the initial crop in the same field [15]. Some farmers even give their fields a “gap year,” when they let the field reduce to ground cover and weeds without planting any crops. These farmers will then allow their livestock to graze the open field, increasing organic matter build-up and further fixing nitrogen in the soil [17].

=Environmental Effects of Organic Agriculture=

Greenhouse Gas Emissions
A variety of studies have found different results regarding the greenhouse gas emissions of organic agriculture. In the Netherlands, research discovered organic emissions to be 15-40% higher than those of conventional farming, though the region's intensive agricultural practices could be behind the spike in emissions [4]. Despite the small land area covered by organic farms in Europe, their greenhouse gas emissions contribute significantly to national emission budgets [18]. On the contrary, a study based in the United States found that after controlling for other sources of greenhouse gas emissions, a one percent increase in organic farm area is estimated to lower emissions across the United States by 0.06%, supporting what the paper called “a mitigating hypothesis,” in which converting arable land to organic farms could mitigate greenhouse gas emissions [19]. One literature review accounted for the differences across studies, affirming emissions in organic agriculture are lower than in conventional agriculture when measured per unit area but higher when measured per unit product [3].

Pest and Disease Control
Organic pest and disease control methods such as the ecological regulations mentioned previously have proven just as effective as conventional methods in preventing product losses. Pest control practices used in non-organic farming have been shown to skew the relative abundance of species (evenness) and reduce species number (abundance), which can advance unbalanced food web structures and lead to communities dominated by a few common species [20]. The biological controls used in organic farming promote evenness, contributing to healthier ecosystems and protecting biodiversity, which in turn assists in pest control [22]. Both synthetic and organic pesticides have been known to contaminate groundwater, though non-organic pesticides have much more adverse effects than do natural pesticides. The natural pesticides, however, can prove hazardous to non-target soil organisms if leached into the groundwater [3].

Biodiversity
Overall, scientists measured organisms to be up to 50% more prevalent in organic systems, though numbers varied between species. Birds, plants, predatory insects, and soil organisms responded positively to organic farming, while non-predatory insects and pests did not [23]. In a multi-year study, plant biodiversity in English farms was seen to increase by 26%, the highest among taxa analyzed. Researchers believe this is because plants have a short recovery period, quickly returning to areas out of which they had previously been forced [17]. The lower diversity and abundance among animal and insect species will likely increase with the age of the organic farm. The higher levels of biodiversity in organic farming compared to conventional farming are due to the lack of potentially harmful synthetic pesticides and herbicides [17]. These increases could also be due to the relative lack of intensity seen in organic agriculture. One research paper goes so far as to establish a negative correlation between species abundance and product yield [8].

Soil Quality
Organic farms preserve more carbon and nitrogen in their soil each year on average than do conventional farms [21]. Increased carbon levels are associated with a higher degree of water retention in the soil, which is an advantage in conditions of water scarcity [7]. Total organic matter in the soil is also higher in organic farming systems due to the compost and animal or green manures added to the soil by producers [15]. Fungi like arbuscular mycorrhizae, a symbiotic organism that receives sugars from plant roots while providing extra nutrient uptake, are also more likely to be present in organic soils than in conventional soils. This difference was attributed to more plant coverage in organic farms, both through rotations and overwinter crop cover [21]. The additional presence of organic compounds in the soil increased soil respiration by as much as 50% [21]. Higher amounts of carbon, nitrogen, and other organic compounds prevent further soil degradation, river pollution and sedimentation, reduction of arable land, and increases in flooding [6].

= Yield Gaps =

Organic farming produces only 80% of the yield of conventional farming systems [2], though yield gaps have pronounced differences among crop types and regions [3]. Nevertheless, decreasing these gaps is possible. According to a multi-institutional study [5], considerable changes in nutrition and water management can lead to increased food production from organic farms. A meta-analysis of previous studies asserts that multi-cropping and crop rotations can increase production in organic farming by up to 12% [24]. Most researchers agree, however, the factors affecting yield gaps need to be more fully understood and addressed before development in organic agriculture can continue.

= Alternative Methods =

Conservation Farming
[|Conservation farming] promotes minimal disturbance of the soil, meaning no tilling or burning of organic residue between growing seasons and permanent plant cover on the fields. This method has been proven to increase soil quality while decreasing water use and labor costs and generating higher yields (up to 45% increase) [9]. The main hurdles to the popularization of this method are high equipment costs and steep learning curves for farmers used to tilling their fields every year [10].

System of Rice Intensification
Another method, more useful in Asia where over two-thirds of this crop is grown [25], is the System of Rice Intensification. It postulates growing rice in aerated soil rather than flooded paddies. The differences between the two methods can be seen in figure 2, right. It promises to increase yield, reduce costs of land preparation and seed, decrease fertilizer and water use, and even mitigate methane emissions [11].

Agroforestry
The final practice is called agroforestry. Promoters of this form of farming assert the future of agriculture will be in m ulti-functional land use, which can meet the demands of food and fuel production, ecosystem and biodiversity protection, and is resilient to climate change. This method integrates trees and shrubs with crops or livestock, as seen in figure 3. Establishing trees in these areas can regulate soil, water, and air quality as well as support biodiversity and mitigate pests [12].

**Conclusion**

Organic agriculture is designed to combine biological, cultural, and mechanical practices to develop sustainable farming methods that are harmonious with the environment [1]. It does so without the use of synthetic pesticides or fertilizers and relies on habitat management, crop rotation, and other forms of ecological care to reduce the presence of pests and foster plant growth.

Drawbacks of organic farming include increased greenhouse gas emissions and decreased product yield. However, most researchers agree both problems can be mitigated with changes in packaging composition and current farm resource governance, respectively. The environmental benefits of organic farming mainly lie with its increased soil health, which not only bolsters plant growth but also prevents erosion, degradation, and the spread of disease. Ecological management methods such as groundcover, reduced tillage, and natural enemies work just as well as synthetic pesticides for pest and disease controls. Their use further benefits the soil and keeps surrounding groundwater clean.

Emerging from the background in recent years are alternative farming methods such as conservation agriculture, the System of Rice Intensification, and agroforestry.

Researchers agree that there’s plenty more to know about the impacts of organic farming on air and water quality, soil fertility, biodiversity and crop pollination, pest and disease control, and food production and quality. Through understanding of its effects and their causes, researchers hope to optimize farming to not only increase production yield, but also to benefit the environment.

= References =

[1] (2005, September) “Definition of Organic Agriculture.” International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements [Online] Available: ifoam.bio/en/organic-landmarks/definition-organic-agriculture. [26 June 2018]

[2] Seufert, V., et al. (2012, May) “Comparing the Yields of Organic and Conventional Agriculture.” Nature [Online] 485, pp. 229-232 Available: []. [23 June 2018]

[3] Birkhofer, K. et al. (2016, July) “Environmental Impacts of Organic Farming.” John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [Online] Available: []. [15 June 2018]

[4] Bos, J., et al. (2014, March) “Energy Use and Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Organic and Conventional Farming Systems in the Netherlands.” Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences [Online] 68, pp. 61-70. Available: []. [23 June 2018]

[5] Mueller, N., et al. (2012, October) “Closing Yield Gaps through Nutrient and Water Management.” Nature [Online] 490(7419), pp. 254-257. Available: []. [23 June 2018]

[6] (2018) “Threats: Soil Erosion and Degradation.” World Wildlife Fund [Online] Available: worldwildlife.org/threats/soil-erosion-and-degradation. [26 June 2018]

[7] Gomiero, T., et al. (2011, April) “Environmental Impact of Different Agricultural Management Practices: Conventional vs. Organic Agriculture.” Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences [Online] 30(1-2), pp. 95-124. Available: tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07352689.2011.554355#tabModule. [23 June 2018]

[8] Gabriel, D., et al (2013, January) “Food Production vs. Biodiversity: Comparing Organic and Conventional Agriculture.” British Ecological Society: Journal of Applied Ecology [Online] 50(2), Available: https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12035. [23 June 2018]

[9] “What is Conservation Agriculture?” Cornell University College of Agriculture and Life Sciences [Online] Available: conservationagriculture.mannlib.cornell.edu/pages/aboutca/.html. [26 June 2018]

[10] Huggins, D. and Reganold, J. (2008, July) “No Till: The Quiet Revolution.” Scientific American [Online] 299(1), pp. 70-77 Available: @https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/20902500/DavidHuggins/NoTill.pdf. [23 June 2018]

[11] Kassim, A. and Brammer, H. (2012, April) “Combining Sustainable Agricultural Production with Economic and Environmental Benefits.” Geographical Journal [Online] 179(1), pp. 11-18. Available: []. [23 June 2018]

[12] Smith, J., et al. (2012, January) “Reconciling Productivity with Protection of the Environment: Is Temperate Agroforestry the Answer?” Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems. [Online] 28(1), pp. 80-92. Available: cambridge.org/core/journals/renewable-agriculture-and-food-systems/article/div-classtitlereconciling-productivity-with-protection-of-the-environment-is-temperate-agroforestry-the-answerdiv/50AE9D3919BC56EB711C66E5E96DC075. [23 June 2018]

[13] Phillips, T. (2008) “Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs): Transgenic Crops and Recombinant DNA Technology”. Nature Education [Online] 1(1), pp. 213. Available: nature.com/scitable/topicpage/genetically-modified-organisms-gmos-transgenic-crops-and-732. [30 June 2018]

[14] “National Organics Standards Board: NOSB.” United States Department of Agriculture [Online] Available: ams.usda.gov/rules-regulations/organic/nosb. [30 June 2018]

[15] (2015, September) “Introduction to Organic Practices.” United States Department of Agriculture. [Online] Available: ams.usda.gov/sites/default/files/media/Organic%20Practices%20Factsheet.pdf. [15 June 2018]

[16] Gurr, G. and You, M. (2016, January) “Conservation Biological Control of Pests in the Molecular Era: New Opportunities to Address Old Constraints.” Front. Plant Sci [Online] 6(25). Available: frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2015.01255/full. [5 July 2018]

[17] Fuller, R., et al. (2005, December) "Benefits of Organic Farming to Biodiversity Vary among Taxa." The Royal Society Publishing: Biology Letters [Online] 1(4), pp. 431-434. Available: ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1626368/. [2 July 2018]

[18] Klemedtsson, Å., et al. (2007, January) “Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Farmed Organic Soils: A Review.” Soil Use and Management: British Society of Soil Science [Online] 13(4), pp. 245-250. Available: onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1475-2743.1997.tb00595.x. [5 July 2018]

[19] Squalli, J. (2016, November) “A Longitudinal U.S. State-Level Analysis of Organic Food Production and Greenhouse Gas Emissions.” Harvard University | Journal of Cleaner Production [Online] 192, pp. 30-42. Available: dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/33797399/SQUALLI-DOCUMENT-2016.pdf?sequence=1. [6 July 2018]

[20] Crowder, D., et al. (2010, July) “Organic Agriculture Promotes Evenness and Natural Pest Control.” Nature [Online] 466, pp. 109-112. Available: nature.com/articles/nature09183. [6 July 2018]

[21] Pimentel, D., et al. (2005, July) “Environmental, Energetic, and Economic Comparisons of Organic and Conventional Farming Systems.” BioScience [Online] 55(7), pp. 573-582. Available: academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/55/7/573/306755. [15 June 2018]

[22] Geiger, F., et al. (2010, March) “Persistent Negative Effects of Pesticides on Biodiversity and Biological Control Potential on European Farmland.” Basic and Applied Ecology [Online] 11(2), pp. 97-105. Available: sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1439179109001388. [6 July 2018]

[23] Bengtsson, J., et al. (2005, March) “The Effects of Organic Agriculture on Biodiversity and Abundance: A Meta-Analysis.” British Ecological Society: Journal of Applied Ecology [Online] 42(2), pp. 261-269. Available: besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2005.01005.x. [6 July 2018]

[24] Ponisio, L., et al. (2014, December) “Diversification Practices Reduce Organic to Conventional Yield Gap.” Royal Society Publishing: Proceeding of the Royal Society B | Biological Sciences [Online] 282(1799) Available: rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/282/1799/20141396. [6 July 2018]

[25] "Where is Rice Grown?" //Ricepedia | International Rice Research Institute | Africa Rice Center | International Center for Tropical Agriculture// [Online] Available: http://ricepedia.org/rice-as-a-crop/where-is-rice-grown/. [6 July 2018]

References Continued (Pictures)
[P1] (2017, March) “Advantages and Disadvantages of Agroforestry.” Greentumble [Online] Available: greentumble.com/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-agroforestry/. [30 June 2018]

[P2] (2016, August) “The Most Beautiful Rice Fields in Bali.” Things to Do in Bali [Online] Available: thingstodoinbali.com/blog/the-most-beautiful-rice-fields-in-bali. [30 June 2018]

[P3] Palanisami, K., et al. (2013, February) “A Note on System of Rice Intensification in 13 States in India.” Economic and Political Weekly [Online] 48(8). Available: indiawaterportal.org/articles/note-system-rice-intensification-practices-13-states-india. [30 June 2018]

[P4] Savage, S. (2015, October) "The Lower Productivity of Organic Farming: A New Analysis and its Big Implications." //Forbes// [Online] Available: https://www.forbes.com/sites/stevensavage/2015/10/09/the-organic-farming-yield-gap/2/#4a31120334b4. [6 July 2018]

Conservation Agriculture Benefits of Biodiversity Biological Control Research Health Benefits of Organic Agriculture? Economic Impacts of Organic Farming Alternative Farming Systems
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